The word kamma means literally action or deed, but in the Buddha’s teaching it refers exclusively to volitional action. From a technical standpoint, kamma denotes wholesome or unwholesome volition (cetanà), volition being the factor responsible for action. Thus the Buddha declares: “It is volition, monks, that I call kamma, for having willed, one performs an action through body, speech or mind.” All volitional action, except that of a Buddha or an arahant, constitutes kamma. As mentioned in the last chapter, although volition arises and passes away together with its citta, the kammic potential created by it does not dissipate until it has given its appropriate effect or becomes defunct. Buddhas and arahants are bound to experience the ripening of their past kamma as long as their psycho-physical personalities persist, that is, until they pass away. The law of kamma (kammaniyàma) is self-subsistent in its operation, ensuring that willed deeds produce their effects in accordance with their ethical quality just as surely as seeds bear fruit in accordance with their species. The direct products of kamma are the resultant cittas that arise when kamma finds the right conditions to bear fruit. Kamma also produces a distinct type of matter in the organic bodies of living beings, called kammaborn matter, which was briefly explained in the preceding chapter.
SOME ASPECTS OF KAMMA
By applying four different methods of analysis, kamma can be classified into four fourfold divisions, making sixteen types of kamma in all. A summary of this is given in Diagram 3, and followed by a detailed explanation.
FOURFOLD KAMMA AT A GLANCE1.
1Productive kamma1By way of1.
2Supportive kammafunction1.3Obstructive kamma1.
4Destructive kamma2.
1Weighty kamma2By order2.
2Near-death kammaof ripening2.
3Habitual kamma2.
4Reserve kamma3.
1Immediately effective kamma3By time3.
2Subsequently effective kammaof ripening3.
3Indefinitely effective kamma3.
4Defunct kamma4.1Unwholesome kamma4By place4.2Sense-sphere wholesome kammaof ripening4.3Fine-material-sphere wholesome kamma4.4Immaterial-sphere wholesome kamma born matter, both at the moment of rebirth-linking and during the course of existence. At the moment of conception, productive kamma generates the rebirth-linking citta and the kamma-born types of matter constituting the physical body of the new being. During the course of existence, it produces other resultant cittas and kammaborn matter, such as the sense faculties, gender, and the heart-base (the seat of consciousness, which is different from the anatomical heart). Only a kamma that has attained the status of a full course of action (see p. 42) can perform the function of producing rebirth-linking, but all wholesome and unwholesome kammas without exception can produce results during the course of existence. 1.2 Supportive (upatthambhaka) kamma is kamma which does not gain an opportunity to produce its own result, but which, when some other kamma is exercising a productive function, supports it, either by enabling it to produce its pleasant or painful results over an extended time without obstruction, or by reinforcing the results produced by another kamma. For example, when through the productive function of wholesome kamma one is reborn as a human being, supportive kamma may contribute to the extension of one’s life-span and ensure that one is healthy and well provided with the necessities of life. When an unwholesome kamma has exercised its productive function by causing a painful disease, other unwholesome
1BY WAY OF FUNCTION
Kammas perform different functions (kicca), of which four arementioned here. Any kamma, under different circumstances,can perform any or several of these functions.
1.1Productive (janaka) kamma is wholesome or unwhole-some volition which produces resultant cittas and kamma born matter, both at the moment of rebirth-linking and during the course of existence. At the moment of conception, productive kamma generates the rebirth-linking citta and the kamma-born types of matter constituting the physical body of the new being. During the course of existence, it produces other resultant cittas and kammaborn matter, such as the sense faculties, gender, and the heart-base (the seat of consciousness, which is different from the anatomical heart). Only a kamma that has attained the status of a full course of action (see p. 42) can perform the function of producing rebirth-linking, but all wholesome and unwholesome kammas without exception can produce results during the course of existence. 1.2 Supportive (upatthambhaka) kamma is kamma which does not gain an opportunity to produce its own result, but which, when some other kamma is exercising a productive function, supports it, either by enabling it to produce its pleasant or painful results over an extended time without obstruction, or by reinforcing the results produced by another kamma. For example, when through the productive function of wholesome kamma one is reborn as a human being, supportive kamma may contribute to the extension of one’s life-span and ensure that one is healthy and well provided with the necessities of life. When an unwholesome kamma has exercised its productive function by causing a painful disease, other unwholesome kammas may support it by preventing medicines from working effectively, thereby prolonging the disease. When a being has been reborn as an animal through the productive force of unwholesome kamma, supportive kamma may facilitate the ripening of more unwholesome kamma productive of painful results, and may also lead to an extension of the life-span so that the continuity of unwholesome resultants will long endure. 1.3 Obstructive (upapãëaka) kamma is kamma which cannot produce its own result but nevertheless obstructs and frustrates some other kamma, countering its efficacy or shortening the duration of its pleasant or painful results. Even though a productive kamma may be strong at the time it is accumulated, an obstructive kamma directly opposed to it may counteract it so that it becomes impaired when producing its results. For example, a wholesome kamma tending to produce rebirth in a superior plane of existence may be impeded by an obstructive kamma so that it generates rebirth in a lower plane. A kamma tending to produce rebirth among high families may produce rebirth among low families; kamma tending to produce beauty may produce a plain appearance, etc. In the opposite way, an unwholesome kamma tending to produce rebirth in the great hells may be counteracted by an obstructive wholesome kamma and produce rebirth in the minor hell or among the petas [departed ones].
During the course of existence, many instances may be found of the operation of obstructive kamma. In the human realm, such kamma will obstruct the good results produced by wholesome kamma, facilitating the maturation of unwholesome kamma that results in suffering and causing failures with regard to property and wealth, or family and friends. In the lower realms, obstructive kamma may counteract the unwholesome rebirthproducing kamma, contributing to occasions of ease and happiness. 1.4 Destructive (upaghàñaka) kamma is wholesome or unwholesome kamma which supplants another weaker kamma, prevents it from ripening, and produces instead its own result. For example, somebody born as a human being may, through his or her productive kamma, have been originally destined for a long life-span, but a destructive kamma may arise and bring about a premature death. At the time of death, at first a sign of a bad destination may appear by the power of an evil kamma, heralding a bad rebirth, but then a good kamma may emerge, expel the bad kamma and having caused the sign of a good destination to appear, produce rebirth in a heavenly world (see “Dying Perceptions,” p. 49, for an explanation of sign of destiny). On the other hand, a bad kamma may suddenly arise, cut off the productive potential of a good kamma, and generate rebirth in a woeful realm.
According to Ledi Sayadaw (a renowned Abhidhamma Master of Burma who lived from 1846 to 1923), destructive kamma can also be responsible for cutting off the efficacy of any of the sense faculties—the eye, ear, etc.—causing blindness or deafness, sexual mutation, etc. The Vibhàvinã òãkà (the sub-commentary to Abhidhammatthasaïgaha, The Manual of Abhidhamma) distinguishes between productive kamma and destructive kamma on the ground that productive kamma produces its result without cutting off the result of some other kamma, while destructive kamma does so after first cutting off another kamma’s result. But other teachers cited by the Vibhàvinã hold that destructive kamma does not produce its own result at all; it completely cuts off the result of the other kamma, giving still a third kamma the opportunity to ripen. Ledi Sayadaw gives the example of intentional killing to illustrate how one kamma may exercise all four functions. When a person takes another’s life, as long as the volition of killing does not have the opportunity to ripen, it exercises any of the other three functions: it may support the ripening of other unwholesome kamma; or obstruct the ripening of other wholesome kamma; or cut off entirely the efficacy of wholesome kamma. When the act of killing secures the opportunity to ripen, then each volition involved in the act has the power to produce one rebirth in the woeful planes; thereafter, such volition has no further power to produce rebirth-linking. However, such kamma
can continue to exercise the other three functions, as well as the function of producing results during the course of existence, even for a hundred thousand aeons or more into the future (see pp. 9-10 for the kammic potential created by volition). 2 BY ORDER OF RIPENING This section concerns the order of precedence among different kammas in taking on the role of generating rebirth-linking in the next existence. Being the major subject of this book, it will be explained in Chapter 4. 3 BY TIME OF RIPENING 3.1 Immediately effective (diññhadhammavedanãya) kamma; 3.2 Subsequently effective (upapajjavedanãya) kamma; 3.3 Indefinitely effective (aparàpariyavedanãya) kamma; The three types of kamma above have already been explained in the preceding chapter, pp. 27-28. 3.4 Defunct (ahosi) kamma: This term does not designate a special class of kamma, but applies to kamma that, although due to ripen in either the present existence or the next existence, did not meet conditions conducive to its maturation. In the case of arahants and Buddhas, all their accumulated kamma from the past which was due to ripen in future lives becomes defunct with their final passing away.
Here, place of ripening refers to the four planes of existence according to Theravada Buddhist scriptures: l the woeful plane; l the sensuous blissful plane; l the fine material-sphere plane; l the immaterial-sphere plane. Though a distinction is made between the woeful plane and the sensuous blissful plane, both planes are actually subdivisions of the sense-sphere plane. 4.1 Unwholesome Kamma can be created by beings in any plane of existence, but the brahmàs [asexual deities] of the fine-material sphere and immaterial-sphere planes as well as anàgàmis [non-returners] and arahants in any plane are incapable of committing any unwholesome kamma associated with lust or anger. Generally, unwholesome kamma has the potential to produce rebirth-linking in the woeful plane; but during the course of existence, it gives effect anywhere in the sense-sphere plane or the finematerial world, according to circumstances. There are ten unwholesome courses of action (akusalakammapatha) classified according to the doors (dvàra) through which the kamma is generally performed (see Diagram 4).
The expression “generally performed” is used because such actions as killing and stealing can also be produced by speech, i.e. by command, yet even in such cases these actions are still considered bodily kamma. Similarly, though such actions as false speech, etc. may also be done bodily, i.e. by writing or by hand signals, they are still considered verbal kamma because their main medium of execution is the door of speech. The first seven courses are identified with the volition initiating an effort to accomplish the respective action. Such volition is an unwholesome kamma regardless of whether or not it completes the action, but if it does reach completion of the action and achieves its aim (e.g. the death of the intended victim, the appropriation of another’s property, etc.) then it becomes a full course of action. The characteristic of a full course of action constitutes a kamma with the potency to take on the rebirth-generating role.
The last three courses of action generally occur only in the mind and without reaching intentional expression through body or speech. Covetousness (abhijjà) is the wish to acquire another person’s property. Even though greed for another’s property arises, it does not become a full course of action unless it arouses in one the desire to take possession of that property. Ill will (vyàpàda) is the mental factor of hatred, which becomes a full course of action when it arises with the wish that another being meet with harm and affliction. Wrong View (micchàdiññhi) becomes a full course of action when it assumes the form of one of the nihilistic views which deny the validity of ethics and the retributive consequences of action. Three such views are mentioned often in the Sutta Pitaka: l l l nihilism (natthika-diññhi), which denies the survival of the personality in any form after death, thus negating the moral significance of deeds; the inefficacy-of-action view (akiriya-diññhi), which claims that deeds have no efficacy in producing results, thus invalidating moral distinctions; and the acausality view (ahetuka-diññhi), which states that there is no cause or condition for the defilement and purification of beings, that beings are defiled and purified by chance, fate, or necessity. In the ultimate sense, unwholesome kamma is identifiable with the volition in the twelve unwholesome kammic cittas associated with attachment (lobha), hate (dosa) and delusion (moha).1 4.2 Wholesome kamma of the sense-sphere can be performed by beings (except Buddhas and arahants) in any plane of existence. It has the potential to produce rebirth-linking in the sensuous blissful plane, but during the course of existence, it can give effect anywhere in the sensuous world or the fine-material world, according to circumstances. By way of the door of action, ten courses of wholesome kamma are enumerated: the three of body are abstinence from the three unwholesome bodily deeds; the four of speech are abstinence from the four unwholesome verbal deeds; the three of mind are non-covetousness, non-ill will, and right view (see Diagram 5). DIAGRAM 5 TEN WHOLESOME COURSES OF ACTION Door Wholesome Course of Action Body Speech Abstinence from 1 killing 2 stealing Mind 8 Non-covetousness 4 false speech 5 slandering 3 sexual misconduct 6 harsh speech 7 frivolous talk (generosity) 9 Non-ill will (loving-kindness) 10 Right view
with non-attachment (or generosity), non-hate (or lovingkindness) and non-delusion (or wisdom).2 4.3 Wholesome kamma of the fine-material sphere is purely mental action. It consists of meditation that has reached absorption and is fivefold by distinction of jhana-factors.3 Each wholesome jhana citta has the potential to generate rebirth in the fine-material realm that corresponds with its own level. 4.4 Wholesome kamma of the immaterial sphere is also purely mental action. It consists of meditation that has reached absorption and is fourfold by distinction of the object.4 Immaterial-sphere wholesome jhana citta has the potential to produce as its result only its corresponding resultant citta, which fulfills only three functions of rebirth, bhavanga and death in the immaterial realm to which it pertains. In this chapter, the nature of kamma and some of its various aspects have been discussed. From these, and the preceding chapter’s exposition of the kammic potential created during normal cognitive processes, the following conclusions may be drawn:
SOME ASPECTS OF KAMMA
By applying four different methods of analysis, kamma can be classified into four fourfold divisions, making sixteen types of kamma in all. A summary of this is given in Diagram 3, and followed by a detailed explanation.
FOURFOLD KAMMA AT A GLANCE1.
1Productive kamma1By way of1.
2Supportive kammafunction1.3Obstructive kamma1.
4Destructive kamma2.
1Weighty kamma2By order2.
2Near-death kammaof ripening2.
3Habitual kamma2.
4Reserve kamma3.
1Immediately effective kamma3By time3.
2Subsequently effective kammaof ripening3.
3Indefinitely effective kamma3.
4Defunct kamma4.1Unwholesome kamma4By place4.2Sense-sphere wholesome kammaof ripening4.3Fine-material-sphere wholesome kamma4.4Immaterial-sphere wholesome kamma born matter, both at the moment of rebirth-linking and during the course of existence. At the moment of conception, productive kamma generates the rebirth-linking citta and the kamma-born types of matter constituting the physical body of the new being. During the course of existence, it produces other resultant cittas and kammaborn matter, such as the sense faculties, gender, and the heart-base (the seat of consciousness, which is different from the anatomical heart). Only a kamma that has attained the status of a full course of action (see p. 42) can perform the function of producing rebirth-linking, but all wholesome and unwholesome kammas without exception can produce results during the course of existence. 1.2 Supportive (upatthambhaka) kamma is kamma which does not gain an opportunity to produce its own result, but which, when some other kamma is exercising a productive function, supports it, either by enabling it to produce its pleasant or painful results over an extended time without obstruction, or by reinforcing the results produced by another kamma. For example, when through the productive function of wholesome kamma one is reborn as a human being, supportive kamma may contribute to the extension of one’s life-span and ensure that one is healthy and well provided with the necessities of life. When an unwholesome kamma has exercised its productive function by causing a painful disease, other unwholesome
1BY WAY OF FUNCTION
Kammas perform different functions (kicca), of which four arementioned here. Any kamma, under different circumstances,can perform any or several of these functions.
1.1Productive (janaka) kamma is wholesome or unwhole-some volition which produces resultant cittas and kamma born matter, both at the moment of rebirth-linking and during the course of existence. At the moment of conception, productive kamma generates the rebirth-linking citta and the kamma-born types of matter constituting the physical body of the new being. During the course of existence, it produces other resultant cittas and kammaborn matter, such as the sense faculties, gender, and the heart-base (the seat of consciousness, which is different from the anatomical heart). Only a kamma that has attained the status of a full course of action (see p. 42) can perform the function of producing rebirth-linking, but all wholesome and unwholesome kammas without exception can produce results during the course of existence. 1.2 Supportive (upatthambhaka) kamma is kamma which does not gain an opportunity to produce its own result, but which, when some other kamma is exercising a productive function, supports it, either by enabling it to produce its pleasant or painful results over an extended time without obstruction, or by reinforcing the results produced by another kamma. For example, when through the productive function of wholesome kamma one is reborn as a human being, supportive kamma may contribute to the extension of one’s life-span and ensure that one is healthy and well provided with the necessities of life. When an unwholesome kamma has exercised its productive function by causing a painful disease, other unwholesome kammas may support it by preventing medicines from working effectively, thereby prolonging the disease. When a being has been reborn as an animal through the productive force of unwholesome kamma, supportive kamma may facilitate the ripening of more unwholesome kamma productive of painful results, and may also lead to an extension of the life-span so that the continuity of unwholesome resultants will long endure. 1.3 Obstructive (upapãëaka) kamma is kamma which cannot produce its own result but nevertheless obstructs and frustrates some other kamma, countering its efficacy or shortening the duration of its pleasant or painful results. Even though a productive kamma may be strong at the time it is accumulated, an obstructive kamma directly opposed to it may counteract it so that it becomes impaired when producing its results. For example, a wholesome kamma tending to produce rebirth in a superior plane of existence may be impeded by an obstructive kamma so that it generates rebirth in a lower plane. A kamma tending to produce rebirth among high families may produce rebirth among low families; kamma tending to produce beauty may produce a plain appearance, etc. In the opposite way, an unwholesome kamma tending to produce rebirth in the great hells may be counteracted by an obstructive wholesome kamma and produce rebirth in the minor hell or among the petas [departed ones].
During the course of existence, many instances may be found of the operation of obstructive kamma. In the human realm, such kamma will obstruct the good results produced by wholesome kamma, facilitating the maturation of unwholesome kamma that results in suffering and causing failures with regard to property and wealth, or family and friends. In the lower realms, obstructive kamma may counteract the unwholesome rebirthproducing kamma, contributing to occasions of ease and happiness. 1.4 Destructive (upaghàñaka) kamma is wholesome or unwholesome kamma which supplants another weaker kamma, prevents it from ripening, and produces instead its own result. For example, somebody born as a human being may, through his or her productive kamma, have been originally destined for a long life-span, but a destructive kamma may arise and bring about a premature death. At the time of death, at first a sign of a bad destination may appear by the power of an evil kamma, heralding a bad rebirth, but then a good kamma may emerge, expel the bad kamma and having caused the sign of a good destination to appear, produce rebirth in a heavenly world (see “Dying Perceptions,” p. 49, for an explanation of sign of destiny). On the other hand, a bad kamma may suddenly arise, cut off the productive potential of a good kamma, and generate rebirth in a woeful realm.
According to Ledi Sayadaw (a renowned Abhidhamma Master of Burma who lived from 1846 to 1923), destructive kamma can also be responsible for cutting off the efficacy of any of the sense faculties—the eye, ear, etc.—causing blindness or deafness, sexual mutation, etc. The Vibhàvinã òãkà (the sub-commentary to Abhidhammatthasaïgaha, The Manual of Abhidhamma) distinguishes between productive kamma and destructive kamma on the ground that productive kamma produces its result without cutting off the result of some other kamma, while destructive kamma does so after first cutting off another kamma’s result. But other teachers cited by the Vibhàvinã hold that destructive kamma does not produce its own result at all; it completely cuts off the result of the other kamma, giving still a third kamma the opportunity to ripen. Ledi Sayadaw gives the example of intentional killing to illustrate how one kamma may exercise all four functions. When a person takes another’s life, as long as the volition of killing does not have the opportunity to ripen, it exercises any of the other three functions: it may support the ripening of other unwholesome kamma; or obstruct the ripening of other wholesome kamma; or cut off entirely the efficacy of wholesome kamma. When the act of killing secures the opportunity to ripen, then each volition involved in the act has the power to produce one rebirth in the woeful planes; thereafter, such volition has no further power to produce rebirth-linking. However, such kamma
can continue to exercise the other three functions, as well as the function of producing results during the course of existence, even for a hundred thousand aeons or more into the future (see pp. 9-10 for the kammic potential created by volition). 2 BY ORDER OF RIPENING This section concerns the order of precedence among different kammas in taking on the role of generating rebirth-linking in the next existence. Being the major subject of this book, it will be explained in Chapter 4. 3 BY TIME OF RIPENING 3.1 Immediately effective (diññhadhammavedanãya) kamma; 3.2 Subsequently effective (upapajjavedanãya) kamma; 3.3 Indefinitely effective (aparàpariyavedanãya) kamma; The three types of kamma above have already been explained in the preceding chapter, pp. 27-28. 3.4 Defunct (ahosi) kamma: This term does not designate a special class of kamma, but applies to kamma that, although due to ripen in either the present existence or the next existence, did not meet conditions conducive to its maturation. In the case of arahants and Buddhas, all their accumulated kamma from the past which was due to ripen in future lives becomes defunct with their final passing away.
Here, place of ripening refers to the four planes of existence according to Theravada Buddhist scriptures: l the woeful plane; l the sensuous blissful plane; l the fine material-sphere plane; l the immaterial-sphere plane. Though a distinction is made between the woeful plane and the sensuous blissful plane, both planes are actually subdivisions of the sense-sphere plane. 4.1 Unwholesome Kamma can be created by beings in any plane of existence, but the brahmàs [asexual deities] of the fine-material sphere and immaterial-sphere planes as well as anàgàmis [non-returners] and arahants in any plane are incapable of committing any unwholesome kamma associated with lust or anger. Generally, unwholesome kamma has the potential to produce rebirth-linking in the woeful plane; but during the course of existence, it gives effect anywhere in the sense-sphere plane or the finematerial world, according to circumstances. There are ten unwholesome courses of action (akusalakammapatha) classified according to the doors (dvàra) through which the kamma is generally performed (see Diagram 4).
The expression “generally performed” is used because such actions as killing and stealing can also be produced by speech, i.e. by command, yet even in such cases these actions are still considered bodily kamma. Similarly, though such actions as false speech, etc. may also be done bodily, i.e. by writing or by hand signals, they are still considered verbal kamma because their main medium of execution is the door of speech. The first seven courses are identified with the volition initiating an effort to accomplish the respective action. Such volition is an unwholesome kamma regardless of whether or not it completes the action, but if it does reach completion of the action and achieves its aim (e.g. the death of the intended victim, the appropriation of another’s property, etc.) then it becomes a full course of action. The characteristic of a full course of action constitutes a kamma with the potency to take on the rebirth-generating role.
The last three courses of action generally occur only in the mind and without reaching intentional expression through body or speech. Covetousness (abhijjà) is the wish to acquire another person’s property. Even though greed for another’s property arises, it does not become a full course of action unless it arouses in one the desire to take possession of that property. Ill will (vyàpàda) is the mental factor of hatred, which becomes a full course of action when it arises with the wish that another being meet with harm and affliction. Wrong View (micchàdiññhi) becomes a full course of action when it assumes the form of one of the nihilistic views which deny the validity of ethics and the retributive consequences of action. Three such views are mentioned often in the Sutta Pitaka: l l l nihilism (natthika-diññhi), which denies the survival of the personality in any form after death, thus negating the moral significance of deeds; the inefficacy-of-action view (akiriya-diññhi), which claims that deeds have no efficacy in producing results, thus invalidating moral distinctions; and the acausality view (ahetuka-diññhi), which states that there is no cause or condition for the defilement and purification of beings, that beings are defiled and purified by chance, fate, or necessity. In the ultimate sense, unwholesome kamma is identifiable with the volition in the twelve unwholesome kammic cittas associated with attachment (lobha), hate (dosa) and delusion (moha).1 4.2 Wholesome kamma of the sense-sphere can be performed by beings (except Buddhas and arahants) in any plane of existence. It has the potential to produce rebirth-linking in the sensuous blissful plane, but during the course of existence, it can give effect anywhere in the sensuous world or the fine-material world, according to circumstances. By way of the door of action, ten courses of wholesome kamma are enumerated: the three of body are abstinence from the three unwholesome bodily deeds; the four of speech are abstinence from the four unwholesome verbal deeds; the three of mind are non-covetousness, non-ill will, and right view (see Diagram 5). DIAGRAM 5 TEN WHOLESOME COURSES OF ACTION Door Wholesome Course of Action Body Speech Abstinence from 1 killing 2 stealing Mind 8 Non-covetousness 4 false speech 5 slandering 3 sexual misconduct 6 harsh speech 7 frivolous talk (generosity) 9 Non-ill will (loving-kindness) 10 Right view
with non-attachment (or generosity), non-hate (or lovingkindness) and non-delusion (or wisdom).2 4.3 Wholesome kamma of the fine-material sphere is purely mental action. It consists of meditation that has reached absorption and is fivefold by distinction of jhana-factors.3 Each wholesome jhana citta has the potential to generate rebirth in the fine-material realm that corresponds with its own level. 4.4 Wholesome kamma of the immaterial sphere is also purely mental action. It consists of meditation that has reached absorption and is fourfold by distinction of the object.4 Immaterial-sphere wholesome jhana citta has the potential to produce as its result only its corresponding resultant citta, which fulfills only three functions of rebirth, bhavanga and death in the immaterial realm to which it pertains. In this chapter, the nature of kamma and some of its various aspects have been discussed. From these, and the preceding chapter’s exposition of the kammic potential created during normal cognitive processes, the following conclusions may be drawn:
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